Distinction Between Marginal Cost And Incremental Cost Economics Essay

Distinction Between Marginal Cost And Incremental Cost Economics Essay 2) (a) What is the distinction between marginal cost and incremental cost? (b) How are sunk costs treated in managerial decision making? Why (a)Incremental costs are closely related to the concept of marginal cost but with a relatively wider connotation. While marginal cost refers to the change in total cost resulting from producing an additional unit of output, incremental cost refers to total additional cost associated with the decision to expand output or to add a new variety of product etc. It represents the difference between two alternatives. So both are concerned with the change in the total cost where marginal costs refers to the increase or decrease in that results from producing or distributing an additional unit of output and, incremental cost refers to the change in the total output as a result of change in the methods of production or distribution such as addition of a product or territory, use of improved technology or selection of a additional sales channel. (b)A sunk cost is a cost that has been already incurred and cannot be changed or altered by any decision made now or in future. For example , once it is decided to make incremental investment expenditure and funds are allocated and spent, all preceding cost are considered as sunk cost. Such cost are based on prior commitment and cannot be revised or recovered when there is a change in market condition or in business decision makings. The sunk cost are ignored in managerial decision making as they are irrelevant costs which will not affect the decision. Suppose a company paid $50000 to purchase machinery five years back. The machine was used to produce for last few years and now it is obsolete and no longer can be sold .The amount paid is already incurred and cannot be recovered. So the cost of the obsolete machine will not be considered in making managerial decisions. (8) What shape of the LAC curve has been found in many empirical studies? What does this mean for the survival of small firms in the industry? Answer: In the empirical studies the shape of long run average cost curve to be L-shaped with a scale of economics . This means largest firms tend to have cost advantage and the industry tends to become monopoly which is called natural monopoly. The L-shaped shows that per unit producing a product decline initially and then forms L- shaped which cost advantage for longer period resulting to economies of scale due to optimum utilization of recourses. It was believed that economics outstrips diseconomies of scale as firms expand from small size up to a certain size. For the smaller firms in the industry will face diseconomies of scale and no economic profit as there will be lesser amount of recourses and output level.As marginal cost are raising function of rate of out and falling function of the volume. (9) (a) What is the meaning of economies of scope? How do they differ from economies of scale? (b) What do learning curves show? How do they differ from economies of scale? What is the usefulness of learning curves as a managerial tool? What is the reason for rising international trade in inputs and the use of foreign skilled labor? Answer: (a) Economies of scope exist if a firm can produce several product lines at a given output level more cheaply than a combination of separate firms each producing a single product at the same output level. Economies of scope occur where it is cheaper to produce a  wider range of products  rather than specialize in just a handful of products. Expanding the product range to  exploit the value of existing brands  is a good way of exploiting economies of scope. E.g. Amazon expanding into selling toys, sports goods or McDonalds expanding the range of their products to include salads and health foods. Economies of scope is relatively a new approach to business strategy, and is heavily based on the development of high technology. Economies of scale are reductions in average costs imputable to production volume increases. Economies of scope differ from economies of scale in that a firm receives a cost advantage by producing a complementary variety of products with a concentration on a core competency. While economies of scope and scale are often positively correlated and interdependent, strictly speaking the benefits from scope have little to do with the size of output. (b)The aircraft industry was the first to develop the learning curve. The curve that represents the declining trend in the long run average cost of production is called the learning curve. Economies of scale is the are the reduction in average cost as the result of increase in production volume whereas learning curve shows the graphical presentation of the falling average cost curve with respect to increase in production. The learning curve is widely used by business managers and serves as an important managerial tool to foresee and predict the possible trend in long run average cost of production and plan production accordingly. The basic purpose behind the use learning curve is to forecast the unit cost with cumulative increase in output. It is also used to forecast manpower, machinery, material needs of the company, to determine and quote the future competitive price of the product and for planning production. (c) International trade is the exchange of goods, services and capital across the international territory or borders. The use of foreign labor will be more costly due to the reason that borders imposes additional costs such as tariffs , time costs due to border delays and costs associated country difference . A rise in the use of foreign skilled labor will have a direct impact in the international trade resulting in an increase in the imports which may affect the balance of trade. Chapter 7 Problems 2) Given the following total cost schedule of a firm, (a) derive the total fixed cost and total variable cost schedule of the firm, and from them derive the average fixed cost, average variable cost, average total cost, and marginal cost schedules of the firm. Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 TC $30 50 60 81 118 180 Answer: Total cost = Total fixed cost +Total variable cost Marginal cost= Total cost of producing additional unit total cost of producing the previous unit. Average variable cost=Total variable cost/Number of units Average fixed cost=Total fixed cost / Number of units Total average cost=Average fixed cost + Average variable cost Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 TC $30 50 60 81 118 180 TFC $30 30 30 30 30 3 TVC $0 20 30 51 88 150 MC $ 20 10 21 37 62 ATC $ 50 30 27 29.5 36 AFC $ 30 15 10 7.5 6 AVC $ 20 15 17 22 36 3) Airway Express has an evening flight from Los Angeles to New York with an average of 80 passengers and a return flight the next afternoon with an average of 50 passengers. The plan makes no other trip. The charge for the plane remaining in New York overnight is $1,200 and would be $0 in Los Angeles. The airline is considering eliminating the night flight out of Los Angeles and replacing it with a morning flight. The estimated number of passengers is 70 in the morning flight and 50 in the return afternoon flight. The one-way ticket is $200 for any flight. The operating cost of the plane for each flight is $11,000. The fixed costs for the plane are $3000 a day whether it flies or not. 3(a): Please calculate and compare the profit under each flight. 3(b) is asking should Airway Express continue providing the flight between Los Angeles and New York. Even Airway Express decides not to fly, it still have to pay the fixed costs of $3,000 per day. Answer-Given, Cost of the ticket =$200 Operating cost =$11,000 Fixed cost=$3000 Overnight charge=$1,200 Total cost = $11,000+$3,000+$1,200=$15,200 I. Profit for the evening flight from Los Angeles to New York which has average passengers of 80 and cost of the tickets is given as $200 so the average revenue will be $16,000. Profit=Revenue-Cost $16,000-$15,200 $800 Thus, average Profit for the flight is $800 II. Profit for the afternoon flight next day from New York to Los Angeles carrying average passengers of 50, so the average revenue will be $10000 Profit=$10,000 -$15,200 -5,200 The fight is showing average loss of $5,200 III. Profit for the morning flight eliminating with the night flight from Los Angeles to New York carrying an average passengers of 70, the revenue will be $14,000. Cost of operation =fixed cost + operating cost $3,000+$11,000 $14000 Profit=Revenue earned cost incurred $14000 $14000 $0 The flight is nor earning average profit or average loss. IV. Profit for the afternoon flight from New York to Los Angeles with estimated passengers of 50, the revenue will be $10,000 Profit=$10,000-$14000 $4000 The flight is incurring loss of $4000. (b)The Airway express flying evening flight from Los Angeles is earning a profit of $800 with average passengers of 80 and whereas incurring loss of $5,200 in the return trip. In the next case, the airline is making no profit and no loss in the morning flight from Los Angeles to New York, whereas making a loss of $4000 in the return trip . The airline should discontinue providing flights between Los Angeles and New York. Although, it has a fixed cost of $3000 per day which come to $90,000 but the airline will be incurring huge cost of $14000 per day which comes to $42, 00,000 in a month. So it would be a better option to discontinue the operation of the airline from Los Angeles to New York. 4) Electric utility companies usually operate their most modern and efficient equipment continuously (i.e. around the clock) and use their older less efficient equipment only to meet periods of peak demand. 4(a) Will the short-run marginal cost decrease or increase? Answer: Electric Utility firms retire old plants, modernize generating units, and occasionally build new plants, generally after a lengthy period of licensing, regulatory review, and construction. But this not possible in short run as in short run there are fixed factors which cannot be changed in short run as they tend to use their older less efficient equipment to meet the periods of peak demand. In Electric utility companies variable cost consist mainly energy costs. Fixed cost are the cost which cannot be changed with the level of output and in electric utility companies fixed are analogues to capacity cost. As a result the marginal cost in the short run decreases . The reason is the marginal cost curve will turn up when utility will be forced to less efficient during on peak-periods. 11) The Goldberg-Scheinman Publishing Company is publishing a new managerial economics text for which it has estimated the following total fixed and average variable costs: Total fixed costs: Copy editing $10,000 Typesetting $70,000 Selling and promotion $20,000 Total fixed cost $100,000 Average Variable cost: Printing and binding $6 Administrative costs $2 Sales commission $1 Bookstore discounts $7 Authors royalties $4 Average variable cost $20 Project selling price $30 Determine the breakeven output and total sales revenues. (b) Determine the output that would generate a total profit of $60,000 and the total sales revenues at that output level. Answer: (a)At the breakeven point is the point where cost and revenue are equal. Calculations: Breakeven point (sales) =Fixed cost/(Selling price -Variable cost) =$100,000/($30-$20) =$10,000 Breakeven output=$10,000/$30 =333.3 units (b)Sales=Variable cost + fixed cost +profit =$20+$100000+$60000 =$160020 Output level-$160020/$30 =5334 units. Chapter 8 Discussion 2) (a) Under what conditions should a firm continue to produce in the short run if it incurs losses at the best level of output? (b) Are the normal returns on investment included as part of costs or as part of profits in managerial economics? Why Answer: In short run, there is only one variable input (labor) and other inputs (especially capital) are held constant. In other words, the size of labor may increase or decrease but the capital and other inputs will remain fixed. If the Incurs losses at its best level of output then, the firm should try to reduce marginal cost and operate at the level where marginal and average product are positive or increasing. If price falls below average total cost, but remains above average variable cost, the firm will continue to operate in the short run, producing the quantity where  MR  =  MC  doing so minimizes its losses. Whereas If price falls below average variable cost, the firm will shut down in the short run, reducing output to zero. The lowest point on the average variable cost curve is called the shutdown point. (b)Normal returns on investment is also referred as normal profit, is the level of profit required to keep the engaged in a particular activity .The normal rate of return is the Average profit necessary to attract and retain investment .A normal rate of return, or profit, is necessary to induce individuals to invest funds rather than spend them for current consumption. Normal profit is simply a cost for capital as it is no different from the cost of other recourses (materials, energy or labor).As a result , the normal rate of return are included as a part of cost in managerial economics. 8) What happen to the Dollar price that a U.S. (a) importer pays and (b) exporter receives if prices are agreed in Euros and the Dollar then appreciates by 10 percent with respect to the Euro? Answer: The exchange rate is the price of one currency expressed in terms of another. If the importer pays i.e. in dollars to the foreign country and the value of the foreign country currency is devalued the dollar value of promised payment will fall. Whereas if the foreign currency value appreciates the dollar value of the promised payment will rise resulting to a disfavor to the importer country. If prices are agreed in Euros and the Dollar then appreciates by 10 percent with respect to the Euro and the exporters pay, the value of the promised payment will fall. 13) (a) What are the choice-related variables for a firm under monopolistic competition? (b) What is non-price competition? (c) Product Variation? (d) Selling expenses? Answer: (a)Monopolistic competition is defined as market setting in which large number of sellers sells differentiated products. A firm will produce output where MR=MC. The consumers are willing to purchase given amount of product for the given price. The price is determined by demand curve. In short run firms can give positive profits .Positive profits encourages new firms to enter in the market. In the long run due to the entrance of new firms economic profit is zero i.e. P=AC. The main objective of firms under monopolistic competition is profit maximization. (b)Non price competition- The market situation in which firms or the competitors will not lower the price for a fear of price war. So, instead they focus on extensive promotion to highlight distinctive features or benefit of the products. It refers to the competition among firms that choose to distinguish between their products on the basis of attribute, design are non price means e.g. promotions, style etc. It is often used by firms that want to differentiate between virtually identical products. The reason for this is that firms are that operate in monopolistic competition are the price taker as they do not have the influence in changing the price of their goods. Consequently to distinguish themselves they use the strategy of non price such as product innovation and advertisement. (c) Product variations-Product variation is the change in the product properties or features in timing. For example, passenger cars companies bring new models out in the exiting classs e.g. Gulf I, gulf II. Product variation is the modification by changing one or more features of the product to enhance consumer appeal .It will provide a competitive advantage as the company may be able to charge a higher price and enhance loyalty. The variation is made on quality, performance and design. The product variation is, thus, the improvements in the existing product line with new features, appearance, better quality, better performance etc giving a new outlook to it. (d)Selling expenses-Selling expenses are the part of operating expenses along with administrative expenses. Selling expense is the cost incurred to sell or distribute merchandise .Selling expenses includes advertising, sales commission, promotional materials distributed, salaries and fringe benefits of sales personnel , rent of sales office, utilities usage in the sales department. Chapter 8 Problems:- 2) Starting with the market demand and supply functions in Problem 1, determine algebraically the new equilibrium price and quantity if the demand function changes to QD= 12,000- 1,000P or to QD= 8,000- 1,000P. (b) the market supply function changes to QS*= -4,000+1,000P or to QS**= 1,000P. Solution: We know , at the equilibrium point Quantity supplied equals quantity demanded i.e. QD=QS or QS=QD We have, QD=10000-1000P QS= -2000-1000P If demand function changes to QD=12000-1000P or QD=8000-1000 We get , 12000-1000P=2000-1000P -1000P+1000P= -12000P-2000P P = 12000 P= 12000 The new equilibrium price will be $12000 BY substituting the value of P in the demand function and supply function, 12000-1000(12000)=-2000-1000(12000) 12000-120,00,000= -2000-120,00,000 14000 The new equilibrium quantity is 14000 For market supply function, QS= 4000 +1000P or QS=1000P Now, the equation will be 10000-1000P=-4000+1000P -1000P-1000P= -4000- 10000 -P= -14000 P=14000 The equilibrium price is $16000 By substituting the value of P, will be , 10000-1000P=1000P 10000-1000(16000)=-4000+1000(16000) 10000-140,00,000=-4000+140,00,000 6000 The equilibrium quantity will be 6000 7) From Figure 8-4, determine the effect of a 33 percent import tariff on commodity X. * The tariff-inclusive price will be $3(1+.33) = $4. What are the impacts of tariff on domestic consumption, domestic production, imports, and governments tariff revenue? Please show the numbers, for example, the domestic consumption will decrease from 600X to 500X. Solution: The tariff inclusive price will be $3(1+.33)=$4 , the price of the commodity will be $4 and as a result the price of the commodity X will rise from $3 to $4.Tariff is a tax added to the costs imported goods and sometimes to exported goods. The domestic consumption will decrease due to the addition of tariff which will result to an increase in the price of the commodity. As the price of the commodity will increase, the demand for the commodity will decline which will result in a reduction in consumption from 600X to 500X. The domestic production will increase as the producers in the importing country will experience an increase in well-being as a result of tariff from 200X to 300X. The increase in the price of their product on the domestic market increases producer surplus in the industry. The government tariffs revenue will increase as a result of increase in tariffs as governments receives the tariff and also depends on the way how the government spends. 9) Starting from Figure 8-6 showing the short-run price and output determination by the monopolist, suppose that the average fixed costs of the monopolist increase by $5 and that its AVC is $6 less than the new ATC at the best level of output. ATC=AFC+AVC. After AFC increases by $5, ATC will increase by $5 (ATC curve moves up vertically by $5 for every output Q) and MC, D and MR stay the same. The AFC for 500 units is $6, in other words, the TFC is $3,000. Answer: Average total cost-Average fixed cost + Average variable cost Given ATC=$8, a increase in average fixed cost $5 and AVC is $6 less then, After the increase in AFC the ATC will be appreciated by $5 as a result of this ATC curve will move upwards vertically by $5 for every level of output. The best level of out is where MC=MR which is 500 units. AFC for best level of output i.e. 500 is $6 and TFC is $30,000.

Assessment Of Equipment Diagnostic Radiology Health And Social Care Essay

Handiness and the usage of X-ray equipment in both private and authorities infirmaries is on the addition today in developed and developing states. Quality control of such equipment is of peculiar importance to forestall evitable high doses, radiation escapes and to guarantee dose optimisation. The consequences of quality control in this survey indicate that the end product measured in GHL ( M2 ) ranged between 0.0318 and 0.1192 mGy ( ma ) -1, while comparatively higher values which ranged from 0.0762 to 0.2156 mGy ( ma ) -1 was found in four other infirmaries. The tubing electromotive force truth measured indicates fluctuation among the infirmaries investigated. The divergence in electromotive force truth ranged between 0.9 and 10.9 % in the two units of GHL ( M1 and M2 ) . In the three other infirmaries the scope of divergences are 0.2 to 0.5 % ( PSH ) , 45.5 to 72.7 % ( NOH, the highest ) 22.9 to 23.3 % ( NARH ) . Both GHL ( M1 ) and PSH complied with the demand of  ± 5 % . As r egard timer truth, one-dimensionality of the tubing current and beam alliance ; NOH and NARH exceeded the acceptable bounds of  ±5 % ,  ±10 % and  ±3 % severally. The effect of non-compliance in most portion include: repetition exposures, more disbursals and more significantly, extra dosage to the patient.Keywords: Quality confidence, quality control, environmental monitoring, radiation, X-ray end productIntroductionIn Nigeria, X-rays is the most often used ionizing radiation in medical specialty despite progresss in magnetic resonance imagination and ultrasound techniques. It has maintained a cardinal function in diagnosing of diseases, hurt and in X-ray therapy. In consequence it is the largest manmade beginning of ionising radiation to the universe population ( ICRP, 1991 ; UNSCEAR, 1993 ; Muhogora and Nyanda, 2001 ) . X ray is the major subscriber to the effectual dosage of both the patient and the forces. Because of the radiological hazards involved, it is normally recomm ended that dosage to patient from X-ray be kept every bit low as moderately accomplishable ( ALARA ) with equal image quality ( IAEA, 1996 ) . In add-on, programmes for diagnostic imagination sections, irrespective of the size, should at least contain the undermentioned constituents: equipment quality control, administrative duties, hazard direction and radiation safety programme. Equipment quality control unit carries out rating of equipment public presentation to guarantee proper image quality, every bit good as patient and operator safety ( Papp, 2002 ) . Furthermore, radiation safety unit is to guarantee that patient exposure is kept every bit low as moderately accomplishable and that departmental forces, medical staff and members of the general populace are protected from overexposure to ionising radiation. Presently, there are far above 4000 X-ray machines in Nigeria ( Elegba, 2006 ) out of which less than 5 % are under regulative control. These thereby pose a great jeopardy to the patient, forces and challenges to the regulative organic structure in Nigeria. As a consequence of handiness of X-ray installations, some new while others are 2nd manus ( known locally as Tokunbo ) , there has been a changeless addition in the figure and frequence of X-ray scrutinies in recent times. In Northwestern part of Nigeria for illustration, a study of 124 establishments with beginnings of ionising radiation indicates that 203 X-ray installings were found with merely 90 sealed radiation beginnings ( Mallam et al. , 2004 ) . In the same study, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital ( ABUTH ) complex on norm carries out over 250 diagnostic X-ray scrutinies per twenty-four hours in the three infirmary installations located in Zaria, Kaduna and Malunfasi. The population of the open persons and the fre quence of exposure is an indicant that one-year collective dosage to patient can be rather important. The quality control ( QC ) programme comprises the regular testing that must be carried out on each major constituent of the system to guarantee optimal public presentation within the system ( West,1993 ) . In diagnostic radiology QC trial is carried out to guarantee that a high quality diagnostic image is produced for a minimal radiation dosage to the patient ( NRPB, 1988 ) . The major equipment in diagnostic radiology to which quality control can be applied include X-ray production, sensing, image processing and image viewing equipment among others. The equipment testing is coupled with everyday environmental monitoring and appraisal of image quality ( Oluwafisoye et al. , 2009 ) .( 1.1 ) Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority ( NNRA )Due to the hurtful effects of ionising radiation, the Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority ( NNRA ) was established by the Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection Act of 1995. This national regulative organic structure is charged with primary duty of atomic safety and radiation protection. The Act empowered the NNRA to categorise and licence activities affecting exposure to ionising radiation in peculiar, the ownership, production, processing, industry, purchase, sale, import, export, managing, usage, transmutation, transportation, trading, assignment, conveyance, storage, and disposal of any radioactive stuffs, atomic stuffs, radioactive waste, and any equipment breathing ionising radiation. In this respect, the NNRA in her papers made proviso for minimal demand for the equipment care in line with international regulative policies. As portion of the attempt at heightening safety in the usage of ionising radiation in Nigeria, the National Institute of Radiation Protection and Research ( NIRPR ) was established under the counsel of NNRA. The Institute trains forces in the radiation protection. The present measurings were conducted to look into the suitableness of the quality control trials and the stated tolerance degrees for assorted X-ray equipment at four Nigerian infirmaries. Additionally, environmental radiation supervising around the installations was carried out to determine the safety degree of both the patient and forces.( 2 ) MATERIALS AND METHODSQuality control trial ( kVp truth and duplicability, mAs one-dimensionality ) of four government-owned infirmaries, one general infirmary ( GHL ) , two specializer infirmaries [ Psychiatric infirmary ( PSH ) and National Orthopaedic infirmary ( NOH ) ] and one military infirmary ( NARH ) , all located in Lagos were carried out. The GHL has two functional X-ray units depicted as machine 1 ( M1 ) and machine 2 ( m 2 ) . The probe was carried out with the aid of the staff of the radiology section of each infirmary. Meanwhile, each of the X ray installations was used for both pediatric and big scrutinies. In all the infirmar ies there was no old exposure and QC informations available. The information use was done utilizing Microsoft Excel, 2003.( 2.1 ) Measurement of X-ray tubing Output and exposure clip merchandiseX-ray tubing end product is the sum of exposure, in millirontgens ( Mister ) delivered to a point in the Centre of the utile X-ray beam at a distance of 1 meter from the focal topographic point for 1 ma of negatron passing through the tubing. The end product expresses the ability of the tubing to change over electronic energy into X-ray exposure. X-ray tubing end product is the individual most of import parametric quantity to quantify radiation output ( Zoetelief et al, 2006 ) . The free-in-air exposure, FAE ( Mister ) was measured utilizing mill calibrated KV metre ( US made Victoreen X-ray trial device, theoretical account 4000 M+ ) obtained from the Department of Physics ( DOP ) University of Ibadan. The consistence of X-ray tubing end product with the tubing current ( ma ) or tube current exposure-time merchandise ( ma ) was measured for the scope of ma or ma values used in pattern. The sensor ( KV metre ) measures the mean, effectual and maximal extremum tubing electromotive force, power stage, exposure and exposure clip. This system determines the tubing electromotive force with truth of  ± 2 % ( Victoreen, 1995 ) . The internal ionisation chamber that measures exposure has volume of 36 cm3. The exposure clip is measured to an truth of  ± 2 % . The FAE ( Mister ) measured is converted into end product in mGy ( ma ) -1 by multiplying by a factor 0.00877/ ma ( Chang Jong and Hui- Yu, 1999 ) where ma in the denominator is the merchandise of the tubing current and exposure clip set at the clip of measuring of the end product.( 2.2 ) Environmental Monitoring and General ObservationsThe guiding rule used in all regulative paperss is that, radiation doses to the populace and to the people who work with radiation must be kept every bit low as moderately accomplishable ( ALARA rule ) . In kernel, radiation workers and the patient should be monitored at all times when working. The ground for this monitoring is to guarantee that the pattern being followed by the workers in their day-to-day modus operandi are safe and do non ensue in high doses being received. In the present survey, the dose rate at different points of involvement ( the console, entryway door behind the wall, patient waiting seats ) was measured with radiation sensor ( radiation proctor 4 minirad 1000+ ) . This device measures radiation dosage rate in ?Sv/ hour.( 2.3 ) Optical and Radiation Field Congruence/ Beam AlignmentThe beam control system is required for modulating the size of X-ray field country. Therefore, it plays an of import function in dose delivered to the patient because it controls the sum of patient surface country exposed to radiation and image contrast ( due to scattered radiation ) . The parametric quantities taken into consideration in beam control system includ e ; beam alliance, optical radiation field congruity, truth of the x Y graduated tables and illuminator bulb brightness. In this survey optical radiation field and beam alliance were examined.( 2.4 ) Ocular reviewsOne of the three parts of a quality control programme for a radiographic installation is ocular review. This portion includes look intoing the chief constituents of the equipment for proper operation, safety and good mechanical status. It is expected that they should include ; protective lead dress, lead shield of the cell wall, overhead tubing Crane, radiographic tabular array, control panel and other installations such as door and automatic visible radiation.( 3 ) RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONFive X-ray units in four infirmaries were investigated in the survey. Both the QC and environmental appraisal of the installations were carried out. Table 1 presents the radiographic equipment information at assorted infirmaries investigated. The old ages of industry of the equipment scope from 9 to 31 old ages, while the twelvemonth of installing is between 5 and 31 old ages. The consequence of age on the end product of an X-ray machine is good documented ( Mallam et al. , 2004, Ogundare et al. 2004 ) .( 3.1 ) X ray tubing OutputThe consequence of X-ray tubing end product at a distance of 1m each from the focal point of five X-ray units are presented in Table 2. The values of end product obtained in GHL ( M2 ) are comparatively low, those measured in GHL ( M1 ) are higher than those found in M2. It ranged from 0.0318 to 0.1192 mGy ( ma ) -1. However, higher end products are found at the same electromotive force in PSH and NOH. As an illustration, at 80kVp the end products are 0.0796, 0.1676, 0.2156 and 0.0762 mGy ( ma ) -1 for GHL ( M1 ) , PSH, NOH and NARH severally. The fluctuation in the end product could be attributed to the wave form, anode stuff, filtration, and tube age and anode surface harm. Knowledge of the end product value for a given X-ray tubing permit s the finding of both patient and movie exposures. It is besides used in the computation of Entrance Surface Dose ( ESD ) delivered to the patient at the point where the X-ray beam enters the patient. This dosimetry parametric quantity ( ESD ) gives the perspective appraisal of absorbed dosage to the patient. Although the entryway surface dosage is a hapless hazard index, it can be used to gauge the effectual dosage ( ED ) which better quantifies patient hazard ( Gkanatsios and Huda,1997 ) . The fluctuation in the end product among the infirmaries could take to fluctuation in doses delivered to the patients during the scrutinies. The consistence of X-ray tubing end product with ma was measured for a scope of ma for the five X-ray units at different electromotive forces. The consequences are presented in figures 1-3. Furthermore, consequences of end product measured at different kVp above 80 kVp ( GHL and NARH ) show strong correlativity with ma, nevertheless, the end products measured at lower electromotive force of 60 and 75 kVp indicate weak correlativity with ma. The X-ray tubing and the anode current are extremely stabilized at this point ( Suliman and Elshiekh, 2008 ) . The consequences of the tubing electromotive force truth for five X-ray units investigated are presented in tabular arraies 3a-3d. The tabular arraies show the tubing electromotive force set, the tubing electromotive force measured and the magnitude of divergence. It should be noted that the magnitude of divergence in kVp vary from infirmary to infirmary. In GHL, the divergence ranged between 0.9 and10.9 % for the two machines ( M1 and M2 ) . The scopes of magnitude of divergence for the three other infirmaries are ; 0.2 to 0.5 % , 45.5 to 72.7 % ( highest in this survey ) and 22.9 to 23.3 % in PSH, NOH and NARH severally. Both m1 ( GHL ) and PSH comply with the demand of  ± 5 % , while M2 ( GHL ) , NOH and NARH exceeded the demand. The grounds for higher divergence in kVp found in NOH and NARH are multifactorial. The European Commission recommended a high technique of 125 kilovolts IAEA ( 1995 ) which likely consequences in low doses, but the radiotherapists prefer the higher contrast thorax radiogram which consequences from low kVp. Earlier study indicated that increasing the tubing potency ( kVp ) from 8-13 kilovolt in lumbar and pectoral spinal column scrutiny resulted in a dose decrease of 26-36 % ( Martin et al, 1993 ) . The higher divergences outside the tolerance bound as obtained in the present survey show disagreements in kVp between the measured and the set values particularly if the tubings are non adequately maintained. Furthermore, the overly high divergence between the set and the measured kVp could cut down the image contrast ( Livingstone et al, 2004 ) . The unexpected elevated value of proficient parametric quantities which consequences from defective machine could impact both patient dosage and image quality. The tendencies found in GHL ( M2 ) , NOH and NARH require regular and repeated QC trials.( 3.2 ) Quality Control ( QC ) TrialTable 4 is the sum-up of the QC trials carried out on the equipment at different infirmaries. The kVp truth trials show conformity with acceptable bound in GHL ( M1 and M2 ) and PSH while NOH and NARH show non-compliance with acceptable bound of 5 % . As respects the kVp consistence, similar tendency is found in the infirmaries as those found in kVp truth. In footings of timer truth, it is postulated that exposure clip straight affect the entire measure of radiation emitted from an X-ray tubing. Therefore, an accurate exposure timer is critical for decently exposed radiogram and sensible patient radiation exposure. Both GHL and PSH met the the acceptable variableness bound. Since the timer truth in NOH and NARH are above the bound of acceptableness, it is expected that the radiation dosage delivered to the patient will be higher than the expected value required to bring forth the movie. Furthermore, the one-dimensionality of tubing current ( ma ) and beam alliance of both NOH and NARH fell abruptly of the acceptable bound of 10 % and 3 % severally. Regulation of X-ray tubing filament temperature ( along with the exposure clip find the quality of X raies in the X-ray beam ) is done with millampere picker in an X-ray generator. The beam limitation system is required for modulating the size of the X-ray field country. The mechanism contro ls the sum of patient anatomy exposed to radiation beam ( Papp, 2002 ) . This plays a cardinal function in patient dose and image contrast. The addition in country increases the production of the scattered radiation, hence higher patient dosage and wellness hazard. The non-compliance of optical radiation field and radiation field congruity may stem from the displacement in mechanism that moves the shutter, doing improper public presentation. This leads to higher patient dosage and repetition images ( consequence in more movies being used and more disbursals ) .( 3.3 ) Forces DistributionThe saloon chart in figure 4 shows the distribution of forces. It indicates that two classs of forces are losing ; Radiation Protection Officer/ Medical Physicist and Record Officer. The tendency is similar to the earlier work reported elsewhere ( Oluwafisoye et al. , 2009 ) . The tendency shows that radiation protection of the patients, visitants and forces is non the preoccupation of the direction of the infirmaries investigated. The absence of the record officers indicate that record maintaining at the infirmaries is far from being equal. A record maintaining system is necessary to document the quality control processs, the figure of culls and other activitie s traveling on at the X-ray units of the infirmary.( 3.4 ) Visual/ General ObservationsThe consequence of ocular observations is presented in table 5. It shows that all the basic constituents inspected were functional except LED index on the control panel found in GHL ( M2 ) . Table 6 shows the general observations carried out at assorted infirmaries investigated. Columns 1 and 2 show that the chief door taking to the X-ray room is non lead-lined. Columns 3 and 4 indicate that merely NOH has efficient 2nd door and lead-lined. The cells of the four infirmaries are efficient. This indicates that the interior decorator of the console put in topographic point equal steps that prevent the technicians from immaterial beams during exposures. The doors to the units lack automatic control, connoting that during the exposure the doors do non shut automatically as a consequence, controlled entree to the country where radiation exposure may be taking topographic point is non ensured. Lead apron was non provided in NARH. Nevertheless, the lead apron provided in GHL was non efficient. Regulation for good pattern stipulates that lead aprons and baseball mitts should be available in the radiographic room and have a lower limit of 0.5 millimeters of lead tantamount thickness ( Papp,2002 ) . It is besides apparent that technique charts were losing in all the units, an indicant that technique parametric quantities are chosen at random by the radiographers responsible for the exposure of the patient. This could take to hapless matching of patient size and technique parametric quantities. Furthermore, warning visible radiation was non provided in any of the units to warn visitants or other forces of the exposure traveling on in the X-ray room. The forces monitoring badge was merely available in NOH, bespeaking that forces dose supervising in GHL, PSH and NARH are non-existent.( 3.5 ) Dose degreeConsequence of environmental dose monitoring at the chosen locations within and in the immediate environment of each of the X-ray units investigated is presented in table 7. The consequences in all the five units indicate that the dose rate measured at the sofa are by and large really high. At the border of the cell the dosage rates recorded are greater than the background dosage rate by a factor of 7, 20, and 10 in GHL ( M1 ) , PSH and NARH, severally. The dose rate measured within the cell is comparable to the background. This status is safe for the radiographer ; nevertheless, the dose rate is high within the entryway door in GHL ( M1 ) and NARH, it is greater than the backg round dosage rate by a factor of 6 and 7.5 each. In add-on, the dose rate measured at the waiting anteroom of the patients is comparable with the background dosage rate in PSH and NARH, but higher than the background dosage rate by a factor of 10 in NOH. The high dosage rate experienced in NOH could be attributed to damaged door of the X-ray units. Another possible account for the high dosage rate at the waiting anteroom is the direct nexus between the anteroom and the X-ray machine. It is interesting to observe that there were no escapes experienced in the five X-ray units investigated as reported in the earlier survey carried out in Nigeria ( Oluwafisoye et al. , 2009 ) . Apparently, this present survey is the first QC trial and environmental monitoring attempts carried out in the five X-ray units in four infirmaries investigated. This is an indicant that the consequences are preliminary against which future measurings could be compared. Besides, the usage of thermoluminescent dosemeters ( TLD ) for the forces monitoring has ne'er been undertaken in the five units. Personnel monitoring is indispensable, since there is a nexus between the ionizing radiation and coevals of reactive O series [ ROS ] ( Cohen, 2002 ) . These ROS have been implicated in the etiology of over 100 diseases. Radiation is one of the major exogenic beginnings of free groups in adult male and it has been proved that ionising radiation produces ROS in biological system capable of destructing biomolecules such as DNA, lipoids, proteins and saccharide ( Olisekodiaka et al. , 2009 ) . Workers runing X-ray equipment are exposed to long term low doses of ionising radiation which may imp act their antioxidant position. Consequences of the QC trials and monitoring were sent to the direction of the four infirmaries investigated. In Addition, recommendations on the necessity of regular QC trial were forwarded to each infirmary for necessary actions.( 4 ) DecisionQuality control trials of five X-ray units are undertaken with intent of safety and dose optimisation in the X-rays Centres investigated. The ages of three out of five machines are good over 10 old ages. In add-on, the divergence of the measured kVp from set value on the control panel varied among the infirmaries. Two out of the five machines complied with the needed criterion of pattern, while three exceeded the demand. The QC trial carried out on kVp truth and consistence show non- conformity in two infirmaries. The distribution of forces show that, the preoccupation of the authorization of the X-ray unit investigated was the quality of the radiogram produced at the disbursal of safety of the patient. The fluctuation in the end product of th e assorted tubing is an indicant that doses among the infirmaries differ. In each of the X-ray units investigated there was no specialised installation to execute pediatric scrutinies and movie screening.

Essay On Oedipus The King - 1320 Words

Greta Oulman Windish English II 3 December 2017 Oedipus: An Apparent â€Å"Hero† Did you ever think that a man who killed his father and married his mother would ever be considered a hero? NOBODY DID. (Except the Greeks†¦) The story of our tragic â€Å"hero,† Oedipus, depicts him in the midst of his life, just learning about his adoption and, years later, the birth of his four kids (with his mother) that - apparently - inspired so many people. Oedipus’ Story Oedipus’ story is about how he became an apparent â€Å"hero†. In the beginning, Oedipus’ father, King Laius, and mother, Queen Jocasta of Thebes wanted to know if they would someday have kids. Laius went to the Oracle of Delphi and asked the burning question. The Oracle replied that their first†¦show more content†¦She asked him the same riddle as she did everybody else: â€Å"What walks on four feet in the morning, two in the afternoon, and three at night?† Oedipus thought long and hard until he finally answered with â€Å"Man, who crawls on all fours as a baby, he walks on two legs as an adult, and needs a walking stick when old.† The Sphinx - never bested at her own game - was so angry at Oedipus, she fell off the rock she was sitting on and killed herself. He was then greeted by Creon, the uncle he didn’t know he had. Creon said that whoever killed the Sphinx would become king. Oedipus met Jocasta and they were married, unknowingly completely fulfilling the prophecy. The new king had fathered four kids with his mother: Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone and Ismene. Years later, a plagued smothered the land. Oedipus sent Creon to the Oracle to find out why. The Oracle told Creon it was because Laius’ killer (his first son) hadn’t been caught. Oedipus ordered a search for everyone to help find the killer. A messenger came in (at that exact moment) to tell the king that he, in fact killed the previous king. Creon and Oedipus argued, and Jocasta added that her first son was dead. Then, another messenger came in and said that King Polybus was dead. Oedipus was relieved and said he would not attend the funeral anyway, just to prevent the second part of the prophecy from possibly coming true. The messenger then said Oedipus wasShow MoreRelatedOedipus The King Theme Essay1076 Words   |  5 Pages Oedipus the King: Themes of Blindness and Sight in the Sophocles Oedipus the King What does it mean to truly see? Do those blessed with normal vision really see? Oedipus the King by Sophocles’ is intertwined with many powerful themes and messages, establishing what real vision and real sight are. Sophocles’ play also demonstrates that sometimes in life we have to experience great loss in order to rediscover our true selves. In Oedipus’s quest for truth, lack of self-control, ignoranceRead More Realism in Oedipus the King Essay1234 Words   |  5 PagesRealism in Oedipus Rex  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   This essay will examine a feature of Sophocles’ tragedy which causes the reader to doubt the realism underlying the literary work. Specifically, the essay will consider the feasability of the belief at that time – that the Delphi oracle possessed credibility with the people.    At the outset of the drama the priest of Zeus and the crowd of citizens of Thebes are gathered before the royal palace of Thebes talking to King Oedipus about the plague whichRead MoreAnalysis Essay: Oedipus the King1017 Words   |  4 Pages Casual Analysis Essay: Oedipus the King Sophocles play Oedipus the King has endured for over two thousand years. The plays lasting appeal may be attributed to the fact it encompasses all the classical elements of tragedy as put forth by Aristotle in Poetics nearly a century before it was written. According to Aristotle, tragedy needs to be an imitation of life according to the law of probability or necessity. Tragedy is serious, complete, and has magnitude. It must have a beginning, middleRead More Characterization in Oedipus the King Essay2193 Words   |  9 PagesCharacterization in Oedipus Rex  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚   The dialogue, action and motivation revolve about the characters in the story (Abrams 32-33). It is the purpose of this essay to demonstrate the types of characters present in Sophocles’ tragic drama, Oedipus Rex, whether static or dynamic, whether flat or round, and whether protrayed through showing or telling.    Werner Jaeger in â€Å"Sophocles’ Mastery of Character Development† pays the dramatist the very highest compliment with regard toRead MoreOedipus the King Essay1611 Words   |  7 Pagestragic hero? â€Å"Oedipus the King† by Sophocles is a very good play which talks about a guy who was fated to kill his father and married his mother. Aristotle defines â€Å"tragic hero as a person of great stature and virtue who becomes aware of a mortal defect within himself.† This defect leads to great tragedy. Oedipus’s own essential nature makes him a tragic hero because his ignorance (lack of knowledge) led him to his own destruction. Also Fate plays an important role in make Oedipus a tragic hero becauseRead MoreOedipus the King Essay1127 Words   |  5 Pages Oedipus the king written by sophecles when read for the first time the reader will realize that the audience already knows what is going to happen its just the way that the characters deal will with it. There is an oracle that says that Oedipus will kill his father and marry his mother. Sophecles examines the relationship between fate and free will. Fate being what some say is an excuse. For example if I said that I could not do what I wanted to do I could say it was fate, which is junk. What isRead MoreOedipus The King Essay1137 Words   |  5 PagesOedipus was a thoughtful king in the book Oedipus Rex written by Sophocles. Before Oedipus was born, Laius and Jocasta (Parents of Oedipus, King and Queen of Thebes) went to go see Apollo. Reason being, they wanted to talk to Apollo to see what future was ahead for their family. He told them that their baby (Oedipus) would end up killing his father Laius and marrying his mother Jocasta. Them hearing such awful news, they pierced his feet together and gave him to a servant/shepherd to leave him inRead MoreOedipus The King Essay1360 Words   |  6 Pagesabout by the suffering of a heroic figure. In Oedipus The King, by Sophocles, the agony of pain attacking the protagonist is a result of his tragic flaw. Sophocles often uses a characters hamartia to alter or influence the future or outcome of the hero, in this case, Oedipus. Oedipus hubris traps him into fulfilling the vision and intensifies his punishment. Oedipus pride is an inherited characteristic. Even before his glory and power as King of Thebes, he allowed his conceit to affectRead More Oedipus the King Essay1073 Words   |  5 PagesOedipus the King The ancient Greeks were famous for their tragedies. These dramas functioned to â€Å"ask questions about the nature of man, his position in the universe, and the powers that govern his life† (â€Å"Greek† 1). Brereton (1968) stated that tragedies typically â€Å"involved a final and impressive disaster due to an unforeseen or unrealized failure involving people who command respect and sympathy. It often entails an ironical change of fortune and usually conveys a strong impression ofRead MoreOedipus the King Essay615 Words   |  3 PagesSophocles Oedipus the King   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the play Oedipus Rex the main character, Oedipus, has to deal with his predetermined fate and his own nature. He is cursed from the beginning of his life when a soothsayer tells of his fate upon his birth. It is predicted that he will kill his father, and marry his mother, and raise a family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Oedipus was born to Laios and Iocaste who were the king and queen of Thebes. Upon his birth, his parents were shocked at a soothsayer?s prediction of Oedipus?s fate

History Slavery and American Freedom - 1104 Words

Summary I American Slavery, American Freedom written by Edmund S. Morgan captures the history of Virginia while keeping focusing on the social and political elements that uplifted the way of slavery. With the focus on Virginia, the book also probes the central paradox of American history: how a people could have developed the dedication to human liberty and dignity exhibited by the leaders of the American Revolution and at the same time have developed and maintained a system of labor that denied human liberty and dignity every hour of the day (pg.4-5). The key to the paradox is presented in Virginia, the nations largest slave state and primary source of the ideology and leadership. Also the source of conditions which made slavery†¦show more content†¦It was either to keep the black woman aboard and endanger the captain’s crew and cargo or get rid of the woman and cease the spread of small pox. The risk of the woman’s health quickly became the centerpiece of the menâ₠¬â„¢s conversation, and a decision had to be made. Wanting to save the cargo and crew, Captain D’Wolf came to the conclusion that there weren’t any alternatives and that the black woman was to be thrown overboard, whether dead or alive, into the sea. Some believe that many slave owners, traders, and anyone who participated in slave trading dehumanized slaves, although D’Wolf crew men seemed to have a heart towards the black woman, thus realizing she too was human and had feelings just like him. â€Å"Not everyone however, was completely convinced by D’Wolf’s argument. According to John Cranston, none of the sailors tried to overturn D’Wolf’s decision, but several indicated â€Å"that they would not have any Thing to do with it (Mustakeem 306-307).†Ã¢â‚¬  Strapped to a chair, while silenced and sightless by clothe the woman was lowered into the waters of the sea by the crewmen, forced to be a member of the unknown just lik e her disease. When it comes to American Slavery, American Freedom Preface and Book I in relation to †She must go overboard, and shall go overboard†¦Ã¢â‚¬  the two demonstrated that there is more than just slaves, slave owners, and slave traders. There is the origin of theShow MoreRelatedRelationship Between Institution of Slavery and Outbreak of Civil War863 Words   |  4 PagesInstitution of Slavery and Outbreak of Civil War Abstract Fundamentally, Slavery is an economic phenomenon. Looking at the history throughout, slavery has always existed where it has been an economic worthwhile to all those having power. Before the Civil War in U.S, nearly four million slaves lived there. Rates of return on slaves were enjoyed by the masters and these rates were comparable to assets. Industrial enterprises, cotton consumers and insurance companies benefited from slavery. This essayRead MoreThe Gap Between Africa And Afro America1099 Words   |  5 Pagesresponsibility for. Slavery may be buried within the history books in our libraries, but America itself is not free because it is still afraid of reading about slavery and shies away from the topic. Contemporary readers have a responsibility to take the leading role in remembering history of American slavery. The internationalization of contemporary English means that reading is the best tool for doing this and bridging the gap (Bennett and Royle, 238). The history of American slavery is not told inRead MoreAfrican American And The American Revolution1277 Words   |  6 PagesAfrican American and the American Revolution â€Å"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights that among these are Life Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.† The American Revolution is considered one of the greatest and most memorable eras in United States history. Colonist were under the rule of the British which eventually created a problem for them. They came to the realization that being under GreatRead MoreBiography Of Edmund S. Morgan1431 Words   |  6 PagesProfessor of history at Yale University. He taught there from 1995 – 1986 specializing in American colonial history. Morgan, born on January 17, 1916, was taught by Perry Miller (who was his tutor) at Harvard University. Miller influenced him greatly and eventually became a lifelong friend. When he began studies at Harvard University, he was intending on studying English history and literature, he changed his mind once he took a class in American lit erature and changed his major to American civilizationRead MoreEssay Freedom: America’s Biggest Lie1437 Words   |  6 PagesFreedom: America’s Biggest Lie The bells of liberty and freedom have become symbols that characterize the patriotic nature of America. Our precious country was founded on these universal principles that have become â€Å"unalienable rights† of our Constitution. Freedom is more than the ability to express oneself – it is a manifestation of individualism, creative thought, and the inborn desire to think freely and innovate. While Americans cherish their fundamental right to freedom, the definition of freedomRead MoreSlavery Is An Important Chapter Of American History910 Words   |  4 PagesSlavery is an important chapter in American history, and its influence can be seen in the roots of our government and laws. Slavery is a prejudice based on race. It is also economic exploitation; the act of forcing other individuals to work for no pay. While slavery was ultimately abolished, restitution in the form of freedom was not compensation enough for the wrongs, nor could it remove the very ideal of sla very from our nation’s foundation. The effects of slavery continue to influence theRead MoreSlavery During The American Revolution Essay1523 Words   |  7 PagesSlavery was held out until 1865, but during this time period abolitionist are trying to do anything to stop slavery. The reason being is because slavery wasn’t slavery anymore. Slavery was beginning to become more advance due to technological innovation. The Abolitionist are people that were against slavery and would boycott anything to get rid of slavery. The argument that the Abolitionist had during this time period was its conditions as violating Christian’s principals and rights to equalityRead MoreFreedom Vs. Free From Oppression1094 Words   |  5 Pageslearning world history, there is a point when one encounters the question of freedom. What is freedom? Different meanings are attached to freedom, especially when one questions what exactly they are free from. Free from slavery? Free from dept? Free from oppression? There are so many different types of freedom, that it s hard to just give out a sentence and claim that s freedom . However when looking at America a clear vision of freedom appears and it does so mostly because of its history. The UnitedRead MoreEssay on Slavery and the American Revolution1243 Words   |  5 Pagesthe slave population in the United States of America grew to 500,000 in 1176, documenting slavery as part of the American Revolution became increasingly important. America was rooted in slavery; and it contributed to the economy and social structure. The revolution forced citizens of the new nation to be conscious of slavery and its potential dismissal from every day life. Two articles that prove slavery only succeeded because of the false reality that slave owners created and the conformity toRead MoreSlavery1305 Words   |  6 PagesSlavery has been in the United States early as 1619. Slaves were brought to America for one thing and one thing only, money. Tobacco took a great amount of work to harvest, but with the slaves help it all got completed. Slaves cost at least three more times than a regular servant for the reason that slavery was their life, it was their job. Regular servants finished their ‘slavery’ time in about 4 years. Slavery really got across the whole country as time passed, and in 1670 the crop, tobacco, took