Writing for Hobby and Leisure Activity Magazines

Writing for Hob When I began my freelance writing career in 2007, I would never have believed Id end up writing dozens of articles for hob My Ive found hob Leisure activity magazines exist in a mind-boggling plethora of topics; trains, quilting, motorcycles, automobiles, cats and dogs, dolls, scale modeling, yachting, cycling, running (and nearly every other sport imaginable), camping, hiking, video games, arts crafts, astronomy, military history, stamp collecting, coin collecting, rock gem collecting, antique collecting, and every other pastime imaginable. Next time youre at your local Barnes Noble or bookstore, thumb through the special interest and hob Where to Pitch Your Hob Leisure activities represent a huge market in first world countries. So, make sure you pitch your stories to magazines published in developed countries that have wealth and where the people have leisure time for pursuing hobbies such as North America, the U.K, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa. You Dont Have to Be an Expert Writers do not need to be experts about their hob Ive consulted or quoted experts in some hob My article in Garden Answers Magazine, about the Elandan Bonsai Gardens in Port Orchard, Washington, was a profile piece about Daniel Robinson, a bonsai expert who created this magical garden. How Do You Pitch Your Story Ideas to Hob Hob Create Pitch Lists Ive created extensive magazine distribution lists for every leisure activity genre that Ive written in. Once youve developed your magazine distribution lists, youve got them forever, so you dont need to reinvent the wheel every time you want to query a hob Writing for hob

Radon Chemical and Physical Properties

Radon Chemical and Physical Properties Atomic Number: 86 Symbol: Rn Atomic Weight: 222.0176 Discovery: Fredrich Ernst Dorn 1898 or 1900 (Germany), discovered the element and called it radium emanation. Ramsay and Gray isolated the element in 1908 and named it niton. Electron Configuration: [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6 Word Origin: from radium. Radon was once called niton, from the Latin word nitens, which means shining Isotopes: At least 34 isotopes of radon are known ranging from Rn-195 to Rn-228. There are no stable isotopes of radon. The isotope radon-222 is the most stable isotope and called thoron and emanates naturally from thorium. Thoron is an alpha-emitter with a half-life of 3.8232 days. Radon-219 is called actinon and emanates from actinium. It is an alpha-emitter with a half-life of 3.96 sec. Properties: Radon has a melting point of -71Â °C, boiling point of -61.8 Â °C, gas density of 9.73 g/l, specific gravity of the liquid state of 4.4 at -62Â °C, specific gravity of the solid state of 4, usually with a valence of 0 (it does form some compounds, however, such as radon fluoride). Radon is a colorless gas at normal temperatures. It is also the heaviest of the gases. When it is cooled below its freezing point it displays a brilliant phosphorescence. The phosphorescence is yellow as the temperature is lowered, becoming orange-red at the temperature of liquid air. Inhalation of radon presents a health risk. Radon build-up is a health consideration when working with radium, thorium, or actinium. It is also a potential issue in uranium mines. Sources: It is estimated that each square mile of soil to a depth of 6 inches contains approximately 1 g of radium, which releases radon to the atmosphere. The average concentration of radon is about 1 sextillion parts of air. Radon naturally occurs in some spring waters. Element Classification: Inert Gas Physical Data Density (g/cc): 4.4 ( -62Â °C) Melting Point (K): 202 Boiling Point (K): 211.4 Appearance: heavy radioactive gas Specific Heat (20Â °C J/g mol): 0.094 Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): 18.1 First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol): 1036.5 Lattice Structure: Face-Centered Cubic CAS Registry Number: 10043-92-2 Trivia Ernest Rutherford is sometimes credited with the discovery of radon. He actually discovered the alpha particle radiation given off by radon.Radon became the official name for element 86 in 1923. The IUPAC chose radon from the names radon (Rn), thoron (Tn) and actinon (An). The other two names are given to isotopes of radon. Thoron is Rn-220 and actinon became Rn-219.Other suggested names for radon included radium emanation, niton, extadio, exthorio, exactinio, akton, radeon, thoreon and actineon.The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency lists radon as the second highest cause of lung cancer. References Los Alamos National Laboratory (2001)Crescent Chemical Company (2001)Langes Handbook of Chemistry (1952)CRC Handbook of Chemistry Physics (18th Ed)International Atomic Energy Agency ENSDF database (Oct 2010)

The State of Mexico's International Trade Essay

The State of Mexico's International Trade - Essay Example Some of these prominent FTA's are the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), with the United States and Canada (1994), Colombia and Venezuela (G-3, 1995), the European Union (2000), Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland (EFTA, 2001) and Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador (North Triangle, 2001). FTA's have helped Mexico increase its international trade with countries around the world. They have also aided in reducing the effects of the untimely and unpredictable economic crisis such as crashing prices of oil, recession in the global economies and so on. Today Mexico stands at the seventh position in the list of leading trading nations in the world owing to its free trade policies. Mexico contributes to 46 percent of the Latin America's exports and 47 percent of its imports. NAFTA proved to be a major step in attracting foreign direct investments in the country. Foreign capital has increased the employment rates and the output in the country. Earlier Mexico relied on oil for its exports while at present times the manufactured goods compose the major section of export. All these steps have lead to the significant overall economic development of all the parts of the country (Derbez ""Beyond NAFTA -- Mexico and the Free Trade Area of the Americas," by Luis Ernesto Derbez, Secretary of the Economy, Mexico -- "The Free Trade Area of the Americas" -- U.S. Department of State, October 2002"). The biggest trading partners of Mexico are USA and Canada. Table 1 (Davy and Meyers, "United States-Canada-Mexico Fact Sheet on Trade and Migration"). Table 1 shows the export and import statistics of different NAFTA partners in 2003. The major trade partners of Mexico are US and Canada. USA holds a major share in Mexican export sector. Mexico sends 88% of its exports to US. Chart 1 demonstrates the trade among the three countries: US, Mexico and Canada. Mexico-US trade accounted for $286 billion in 2004. Canada and US are the most important contributors to the Foreign Direct investment in Mexico. 40% of the total FDI to Mexico comes from USA. In 2004 this amount was around $7.3 billion from USA. Canada comes at fourth place in the major FDI contributors to Mexico listing. Canada accounted for $379.2 million FDI in 2004 (Davy and Meyers, "United States-Canada-Mexico Fact Sheet on Trade and Migration"). On the other hand Mexico serves as third largest source of oil imports to US as shown in Fig.1 ("Mexico Energy Data, Statistics and Analysis - Oil, Gas, Electricity, Coal"). Chart 1 (Davy and Meyers, "United States-Canada-Mexico Fact Sheet on Trade and Migration"). Fig.1 ("Mexico Energy Data, Statistics and Analysis - Oil, Gas, Electricity, Coal"). Mexico has a strong existence in the international agro-food market owing to its different products like agriculture, forestry, livestock, hunting, fishing, foods, beverages and tobacco. Mexico exported worth $11.8 billion in 2005 and imported worth $14.3 billion in the same year. 65% of Mexico's imports come from USA ("RS/USDA Briefing Room - Mexico: Trade"). Chart 2 ("RS/USDA Briefing Room - Mexico: Trade"). Mexico recorded an annual GDP growth rate of 4.8% in 2006. It increased from 0.8% to 2.8% in three years from 2002 from 2005. The total trade of Mexico showed a significant increase to 60.3 per cent of GDP from earlier

Agency and Franchising Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Agency and Franchising - Essay Example Two types of retail business format are popular; agency and franchising. Agency or an agent can be broadly described as a person with an authority to represent another person, persons or corporation (called the Principal) (Brillinger, p214). The agent therefore, represents the principal in all the commercial transactions. It is important to understand that as the agent represents the principal, the principal, by default, becomes liable for all the acts of omission and commission of the agent. Even when the agent’s appointment may have pre-defined authority as given by the principal, the principal becomes responsible for all the leverages taken by the agent while conducting business on his behalf. The goods and services sold by the agent are owned by the principal, he is just the intermediary who acts on behalf of the owner of the goods and services. ‘By virtue of an agency, the seller contracts directly with the customer, who is seller’s customer, not that of agent’ (Ishani, 2007). The franchising is ‘a marketing system revolving around a two-party legal agreement, whereby the franchisee conducts business according to the terms specified by the franchisor’ (Longenecker, chapter 3). The process of ‘franchising’, therefore, has become popular in the emerging economy which presents wide scope for the parties, franchisee and the franchisor. The franchising format of business primarily comprises of licensing another person to run the business in a pre-determined format. The franchisor is able to expand his business and spread them in wider areas of operation in a relatively short time and with reduced capital cost. By facilitating goods and services to the franchisee, the franchisor is relieved of the pressures of day today operation and at the same time, he is able to control the appearance and operation of the franchisee

Distinction Between Marginal Cost And Incremental Cost Economics Essay

Distinction Between Marginal Cost And Incremental Cost Economics Essay 2) (a) What is the distinction between marginal cost and incremental cost? (b) How are sunk costs treated in managerial decision making? Why (a)Incremental costs are closely related to the concept of marginal cost but with a relatively wider connotation. While marginal cost refers to the change in total cost resulting from producing an additional unit of output, incremental cost refers to total additional cost associated with the decision to expand output or to add a new variety of product etc. It represents the difference between two alternatives. So both are concerned with the change in the total cost where marginal costs refers to the increase or decrease in that results from producing or distributing an additional unit of output and, incremental cost refers to the change in the total output as a result of change in the methods of production or distribution such as addition of a product or territory, use of improved technology or selection of a additional sales channel. (b)A sunk cost is a cost that has been already incurred and cannot be changed or altered by any decision made now or in future. For example , once it is decided to make incremental investment expenditure and funds are allocated and spent, all preceding cost are considered as sunk cost. Such cost are based on prior commitment and cannot be revised or recovered when there is a change in market condition or in business decision makings. The sunk cost are ignored in managerial decision making as they are irrelevant costs which will not affect the decision. Suppose a company paid $50000 to purchase machinery five years back. The machine was used to produce for last few years and now it is obsolete and no longer can be sold .The amount paid is already incurred and cannot be recovered. So the cost of the obsolete machine will not be considered in making managerial decisions. (8) What shape of the LAC curve has been found in many empirical studies? What does this mean for the survival of small firms in the industry? Answer: In the empirical studies the shape of long run average cost curve to be L-shaped with a scale of economics . This means largest firms tend to have cost advantage and the industry tends to become monopoly which is called natural monopoly. The L-shaped shows that per unit producing a product decline initially and then forms L- shaped which cost advantage for longer period resulting to economies of scale due to optimum utilization of recourses. It was believed that economics outstrips diseconomies of scale as firms expand from small size up to a certain size. For the smaller firms in the industry will face diseconomies of scale and no economic profit as there will be lesser amount of recourses and output level.As marginal cost are raising function of rate of out and falling function of the volume. (9) (a) What is the meaning of economies of scope? How do they differ from economies of scale? (b) What do learning curves show? How do they differ from economies of scale? What is the usefulness of learning curves as a managerial tool? What is the reason for rising international trade in inputs and the use of foreign skilled labor? Answer: (a) Economies of scope exist if a firm can produce several product lines at a given output level more cheaply than a combination of separate firms each producing a single product at the same output level. Economies of scope occur where it is cheaper to produce a  wider range of products  rather than specialize in just a handful of products. Expanding the product range to  exploit the value of existing brands  is a good way of exploiting economies of scope. E.g. Amazon expanding into selling toys, sports goods or McDonalds expanding the range of their products to include salads and health foods. Economies of scope is relatively a new approach to business strategy, and is heavily based on the development of high technology. Economies of scale are reductions in average costs imputable to production volume increases. Economies of scope differ from economies of scale in that a firm receives a cost advantage by producing a complementary variety of products with a concentration on a core competency. While economies of scope and scale are often positively correlated and interdependent, strictly speaking the benefits from scope have little to do with the size of output. (b)The aircraft industry was the first to develop the learning curve. The curve that represents the declining trend in the long run average cost of production is called the learning curve. Economies of scale is the are the reduction in average cost as the result of increase in production volume whereas learning curve shows the graphical presentation of the falling average cost curve with respect to increase in production. The learning curve is widely used by business managers and serves as an important managerial tool to foresee and predict the possible trend in long run average cost of production and plan production accordingly. The basic purpose behind the use learning curve is to forecast the unit cost with cumulative increase in output. It is also used to forecast manpower, machinery, material needs of the company, to determine and quote the future competitive price of the product and for planning production. (c) International trade is the exchange of goods, services and capital across the international territory or borders. The use of foreign labor will be more costly due to the reason that borders imposes additional costs such as tariffs , time costs due to border delays and costs associated country difference . A rise in the use of foreign skilled labor will have a direct impact in the international trade resulting in an increase in the imports which may affect the balance of trade. Chapter 7 Problems 2) Given the following total cost schedule of a firm, (a) derive the total fixed cost and total variable cost schedule of the firm, and from them derive the average fixed cost, average variable cost, average total cost, and marginal cost schedules of the firm. Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 TC $30 50 60 81 118 180 Answer: Total cost = Total fixed cost +Total variable cost Marginal cost= Total cost of producing additional unit total cost of producing the previous unit. Average variable cost=Total variable cost/Number of units Average fixed cost=Total fixed cost / Number of units Total average cost=Average fixed cost + Average variable cost Q 0 1 2 3 4 5 TC $30 50 60 81 118 180 TFC $30 30 30 30 30 3 TVC $0 20 30 51 88 150 MC $ 20 10 21 37 62 ATC $ 50 30 27 29.5 36 AFC $ 30 15 10 7.5 6 AVC $ 20 15 17 22 36 3) Airway Express has an evening flight from Los Angeles to New York with an average of 80 passengers and a return flight the next afternoon with an average of 50 passengers. The plan makes no other trip. The charge for the plane remaining in New York overnight is $1,200 and would be $0 in Los Angeles. The airline is considering eliminating the night flight out of Los Angeles and replacing it with a morning flight. The estimated number of passengers is 70 in the morning flight and 50 in the return afternoon flight. The one-way ticket is $200 for any flight. The operating cost of the plane for each flight is $11,000. The fixed costs for the plane are $3000 a day whether it flies or not. 3(a): Please calculate and compare the profit under each flight. 3(b) is asking should Airway Express continue providing the flight between Los Angeles and New York. Even Airway Express decides not to fly, it still have to pay the fixed costs of $3,000 per day. Answer-Given, Cost of the ticket =$200 Operating cost =$11,000 Fixed cost=$3000 Overnight charge=$1,200 Total cost = $11,000+$3,000+$1,200=$15,200 I. Profit for the evening flight from Los Angeles to New York which has average passengers of 80 and cost of the tickets is given as $200 so the average revenue will be $16,000. Profit=Revenue-Cost $16,000-$15,200 $800 Thus, average Profit for the flight is $800 II. Profit for the afternoon flight next day from New York to Los Angeles carrying average passengers of 50, so the average revenue will be $10000 Profit=$10,000 -$15,200 -5,200 The fight is showing average loss of $5,200 III. Profit for the morning flight eliminating with the night flight from Los Angeles to New York carrying an average passengers of 70, the revenue will be $14,000. Cost of operation =fixed cost + operating cost $3,000+$11,000 $14000 Profit=Revenue earned cost incurred $14000 $14000 $0 The flight is nor earning average profit or average loss. IV. Profit for the afternoon flight from New York to Los Angeles with estimated passengers of 50, the revenue will be $10,000 Profit=$10,000-$14000 $4000 The flight is incurring loss of $4000. (b)The Airway express flying evening flight from Los Angeles is earning a profit of $800 with average passengers of 80 and whereas incurring loss of $5,200 in the return trip. In the next case, the airline is making no profit and no loss in the morning flight from Los Angeles to New York, whereas making a loss of $4000 in the return trip . The airline should discontinue providing flights between Los Angeles and New York. Although, it has a fixed cost of $3000 per day which come to $90,000 but the airline will be incurring huge cost of $14000 per day which comes to $42, 00,000 in a month. So it would be a better option to discontinue the operation of the airline from Los Angeles to New York. 4) Electric utility companies usually operate their most modern and efficient equipment continuously (i.e. around the clock) and use their older less efficient equipment only to meet periods of peak demand. 4(a) Will the short-run marginal cost decrease or increase? Answer: Electric Utility firms retire old plants, modernize generating units, and occasionally build new plants, generally after a lengthy period of licensing, regulatory review, and construction. But this not possible in short run as in short run there are fixed factors which cannot be changed in short run as they tend to use their older less efficient equipment to meet the periods of peak demand. In Electric utility companies variable cost consist mainly energy costs. Fixed cost are the cost which cannot be changed with the level of output and in electric utility companies fixed are analogues to capacity cost. As a result the marginal cost in the short run decreases . The reason is the marginal cost curve will turn up when utility will be forced to less efficient during on peak-periods. 11) The Goldberg-Scheinman Publishing Company is publishing a new managerial economics text for which it has estimated the following total fixed and average variable costs: Total fixed costs: Copy editing $10,000 Typesetting $70,000 Selling and promotion $20,000 Total fixed cost $100,000 Average Variable cost: Printing and binding $6 Administrative costs $2 Sales commission $1 Bookstore discounts $7 Authors royalties $4 Average variable cost $20 Project selling price $30 Determine the breakeven output and total sales revenues. (b) Determine the output that would generate a total profit of $60,000 and the total sales revenues at that output level. Answer: (a)At the breakeven point is the point where cost and revenue are equal. Calculations: Breakeven point (sales) =Fixed cost/(Selling price -Variable cost) =$100,000/($30-$20) =$10,000 Breakeven output=$10,000/$30 =333.3 units (b)Sales=Variable cost + fixed cost +profit =$20+$100000+$60000 =$160020 Output level-$160020/$30 =5334 units. Chapter 8 Discussion 2) (a) Under what conditions should a firm continue to produce in the short run if it incurs losses at the best level of output? (b) Are the normal returns on investment included as part of costs or as part of profits in managerial economics? Why Answer: In short run, there is only one variable input (labor) and other inputs (especially capital) are held constant. In other words, the size of labor may increase or decrease but the capital and other inputs will remain fixed. If the Incurs losses at its best level of output then, the firm should try to reduce marginal cost and operate at the level where marginal and average product are positive or increasing. If price falls below average total cost, but remains above average variable cost, the firm will continue to operate in the short run, producing the quantity where  MR  =  MC  doing so minimizes its losses. Whereas If price falls below average variable cost, the firm will shut down in the short run, reducing output to zero. The lowest point on the average variable cost curve is called the shutdown point. (b)Normal returns on investment is also referred as normal profit, is the level of profit required to keep the engaged in a particular activity .The normal rate of return is the Average profit necessary to attract and retain investment .A normal rate of return, or profit, is necessary to induce individuals to invest funds rather than spend them for current consumption. Normal profit is simply a cost for capital as it is no different from the cost of other recourses (materials, energy or labor).As a result , the normal rate of return are included as a part of cost in managerial economics. 8) What happen to the Dollar price that a U.S. (a) importer pays and (b) exporter receives if prices are agreed in Euros and the Dollar then appreciates by 10 percent with respect to the Euro? Answer: The exchange rate is the price of one currency expressed in terms of another. If the importer pays i.e. in dollars to the foreign country and the value of the foreign country currency is devalued the dollar value of promised payment will fall. Whereas if the foreign currency value appreciates the dollar value of the promised payment will rise resulting to a disfavor to the importer country. If prices are agreed in Euros and the Dollar then appreciates by 10 percent with respect to the Euro and the exporters pay, the value of the promised payment will fall. 13) (a) What are the choice-related variables for a firm under monopolistic competition? (b) What is non-price competition? (c) Product Variation? (d) Selling expenses? Answer: (a)Monopolistic competition is defined as market setting in which large number of sellers sells differentiated products. A firm will produce output where MR=MC. The consumers are willing to purchase given amount of product for the given price. The price is determined by demand curve. In short run firms can give positive profits .Positive profits encourages new firms to enter in the market. In the long run due to the entrance of new firms economic profit is zero i.e. P=AC. The main objective of firms under monopolistic competition is profit maximization. (b)Non price competition- The market situation in which firms or the competitors will not lower the price for a fear of price war. So, instead they focus on extensive promotion to highlight distinctive features or benefit of the products. It refers to the competition among firms that choose to distinguish between their products on the basis of attribute, design are non price means e.g. promotions, style etc. It is often used by firms that want to differentiate between virtually identical products. The reason for this is that firms are that operate in monopolistic competition are the price taker as they do not have the influence in changing the price of their goods. Consequently to distinguish themselves they use the strategy of non price such as product innovation and advertisement. (c) Product variations-Product variation is the change in the product properties or features in timing. For example, passenger cars companies bring new models out in the exiting classs e.g. Gulf I, gulf II. Product variation is the modification by changing one or more features of the product to enhance consumer appeal .It will provide a competitive advantage as the company may be able to charge a higher price and enhance loyalty. The variation is made on quality, performance and design. The product variation is, thus, the improvements in the existing product line with new features, appearance, better quality, better performance etc giving a new outlook to it. (d)Selling expenses-Selling expenses are the part of operating expenses along with administrative expenses. Selling expense is the cost incurred to sell or distribute merchandise .Selling expenses includes advertising, sales commission, promotional materials distributed, salaries and fringe benefits of sales personnel , rent of sales office, utilities usage in the sales department. Chapter 8 Problems:- 2) Starting with the market demand and supply functions in Problem 1, determine algebraically the new equilibrium price and quantity if the demand function changes to QD= 12,000- 1,000P or to QD= 8,000- 1,000P. (b) the market supply function changes to QS*= -4,000+1,000P or to QS**= 1,000P. Solution: We know , at the equilibrium point Quantity supplied equals quantity demanded i.e. QD=QS or QS=QD We have, QD=10000-1000P QS= -2000-1000P If demand function changes to QD=12000-1000P or QD=8000-1000 We get , 12000-1000P=2000-1000P -1000P+1000P= -12000P-2000P P = 12000 P= 12000 The new equilibrium price will be $12000 BY substituting the value of P in the demand function and supply function, 12000-1000(12000)=-2000-1000(12000) 12000-120,00,000= -2000-120,00,000 14000 The new equilibrium quantity is 14000 For market supply function, QS= 4000 +1000P or QS=1000P Now, the equation will be 10000-1000P=-4000+1000P -1000P-1000P= -4000- 10000 -P= -14000 P=14000 The equilibrium price is $16000 By substituting the value of P, will be , 10000-1000P=1000P 10000-1000(16000)=-4000+1000(16000) 10000-140,00,000=-4000+140,00,000 6000 The equilibrium quantity will be 6000 7) From Figure 8-4, determine the effect of a 33 percent import tariff on commodity X. * The tariff-inclusive price will be $3(1+.33) = $4. What are the impacts of tariff on domestic consumption, domestic production, imports, and governments tariff revenue? Please show the numbers, for example, the domestic consumption will decrease from 600X to 500X. Solution: The tariff inclusive price will be $3(1+.33)=$4 , the price of the commodity will be $4 and as a result the price of the commodity X will rise from $3 to $4.Tariff is a tax added to the costs imported goods and sometimes to exported goods. The domestic consumption will decrease due to the addition of tariff which will result to an increase in the price of the commodity. As the price of the commodity will increase, the demand for the commodity will decline which will result in a reduction in consumption from 600X to 500X. The domestic production will increase as the producers in the importing country will experience an increase in well-being as a result of tariff from 200X to 300X. The increase in the price of their product on the domestic market increases producer surplus in the industry. The government tariffs revenue will increase as a result of increase in tariffs as governments receives the tariff and also depends on the way how the government spends. 9) Starting from Figure 8-6 showing the short-run price and output determination by the monopolist, suppose that the average fixed costs of the monopolist increase by $5 and that its AVC is $6 less than the new ATC at the best level of output. ATC=AFC+AVC. After AFC increases by $5, ATC will increase by $5 (ATC curve moves up vertically by $5 for every output Q) and MC, D and MR stay the same. The AFC for 500 units is $6, in other words, the TFC is $3,000. Answer: Average total cost-Average fixed cost + Average variable cost Given ATC=$8, a increase in average fixed cost $5 and AVC is $6 less then, After the increase in AFC the ATC will be appreciated by $5 as a result of this ATC curve will move upwards vertically by $5 for every level of output. The best level of out is where MC=MR which is 500 units. AFC for best level of output i.e. 500 is $6 and TFC is $30,000.

Assessment Of Equipment Diagnostic Radiology Health And Social Care Essay

Handiness and the usage of X-ray equipment in both private and authorities infirmaries is on the addition today in developed and developing states. Quality control of such equipment is of peculiar importance to forestall evitable high doses, radiation escapes and to guarantee dose optimisation. The consequences of quality control in this survey indicate that the end product measured in GHL ( M2 ) ranged between 0.0318 and 0.1192 mGy ( ma ) -1, while comparatively higher values which ranged from 0.0762 to 0.2156 mGy ( ma ) -1 was found in four other infirmaries. The tubing electromotive force truth measured indicates fluctuation among the infirmaries investigated. The divergence in electromotive force truth ranged between 0.9 and 10.9 % in the two units of GHL ( M1 and M2 ) . In the three other infirmaries the scope of divergences are 0.2 to 0.5 % ( PSH ) , 45.5 to 72.7 % ( NOH, the highest ) 22.9 to 23.3 % ( NARH ) . Both GHL ( M1 ) and PSH complied with the demand of  ± 5 % . As r egard timer truth, one-dimensionality of the tubing current and beam alliance ; NOH and NARH exceeded the acceptable bounds of  ±5 % ,  ±10 % and  ±3 % severally. The effect of non-compliance in most portion include: repetition exposures, more disbursals and more significantly, extra dosage to the patient.Keywords: Quality confidence, quality control, environmental monitoring, radiation, X-ray end productIntroductionIn Nigeria, X-rays is the most often used ionizing radiation in medical specialty despite progresss in magnetic resonance imagination and ultrasound techniques. It has maintained a cardinal function in diagnosing of diseases, hurt and in X-ray therapy. In consequence it is the largest manmade beginning of ionising radiation to the universe population ( ICRP, 1991 ; UNSCEAR, 1993 ; Muhogora and Nyanda, 2001 ) . X ray is the major subscriber to the effectual dosage of both the patient and the forces. Because of the radiological hazards involved, it is normally recomm ended that dosage to patient from X-ray be kept every bit low as moderately accomplishable ( ALARA ) with equal image quality ( IAEA, 1996 ) . In add-on, programmes for diagnostic imagination sections, irrespective of the size, should at least contain the undermentioned constituents: equipment quality control, administrative duties, hazard direction and radiation safety programme. Equipment quality control unit carries out rating of equipment public presentation to guarantee proper image quality, every bit good as patient and operator safety ( Papp, 2002 ) . Furthermore, radiation safety unit is to guarantee that patient exposure is kept every bit low as moderately accomplishable and that departmental forces, medical staff and members of the general populace are protected from overexposure to ionising radiation. Presently, there are far above 4000 X-ray machines in Nigeria ( Elegba, 2006 ) out of which less than 5 % are under regulative control. These thereby pose a great jeopardy to the patient, forces and challenges to the regulative organic structure in Nigeria. As a consequence of handiness of X-ray installations, some new while others are 2nd manus ( known locally as Tokunbo ) , there has been a changeless addition in the figure and frequence of X-ray scrutinies in recent times. In Northwestern part of Nigeria for illustration, a study of 124 establishments with beginnings of ionising radiation indicates that 203 X-ray installings were found with merely 90 sealed radiation beginnings ( Mallam et al. , 2004 ) . In the same study, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital ( ABUTH ) complex on norm carries out over 250 diagnostic X-ray scrutinies per twenty-four hours in the three infirmary installations located in Zaria, Kaduna and Malunfasi. The population of the open persons and the fre quence of exposure is an indicant that one-year collective dosage to patient can be rather important. The quality control ( QC ) programme comprises the regular testing that must be carried out on each major constituent of the system to guarantee optimal public presentation within the system ( West,1993 ) . In diagnostic radiology QC trial is carried out to guarantee that a high quality diagnostic image is produced for a minimal radiation dosage to the patient ( NRPB, 1988 ) . The major equipment in diagnostic radiology to which quality control can be applied include X-ray production, sensing, image processing and image viewing equipment among others. The equipment testing is coupled with everyday environmental monitoring and appraisal of image quality ( Oluwafisoye et al. , 2009 ) .( 1.1 ) Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority ( NNRA )Due to the hurtful effects of ionising radiation, the Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority ( NNRA ) was established by the Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection Act of 1995. This national regulative organic structure is charged with primary duty of atomic safety and radiation protection. The Act empowered the NNRA to categorise and licence activities affecting exposure to ionising radiation in peculiar, the ownership, production, processing, industry, purchase, sale, import, export, managing, usage, transmutation, transportation, trading, assignment, conveyance, storage, and disposal of any radioactive stuffs, atomic stuffs, radioactive waste, and any equipment breathing ionising radiation. In this respect, the NNRA in her papers made proviso for minimal demand for the equipment care in line with international regulative policies. As portion of the attempt at heightening safety in the usage of ionising radiation in Nigeria, the National Institute of Radiation Protection and Research ( NIRPR ) was established under the counsel of NNRA. The Institute trains forces in the radiation protection. The present measurings were conducted to look into the suitableness of the quality control trials and the stated tolerance degrees for assorted X-ray equipment at four Nigerian infirmaries. Additionally, environmental radiation supervising around the installations was carried out to determine the safety degree of both the patient and forces.( 2 ) MATERIALS AND METHODSQuality control trial ( kVp truth and duplicability, mAs one-dimensionality ) of four government-owned infirmaries, one general infirmary ( GHL ) , two specializer infirmaries [ Psychiatric infirmary ( PSH ) and National Orthopaedic infirmary ( NOH ) ] and one military infirmary ( NARH ) , all located in Lagos were carried out. The GHL has two functional X-ray units depicted as machine 1 ( M1 ) and machine 2 ( m 2 ) . The probe was carried out with the aid of the staff of the radiology section of each infirmary. Meanwhile, each of the X ray installations was used for both pediatric and big scrutinies. In all the infirmar ies there was no old exposure and QC informations available. The information use was done utilizing Microsoft Excel, 2003.( 2.1 ) Measurement of X-ray tubing Output and exposure clip merchandiseX-ray tubing end product is the sum of exposure, in millirontgens ( Mister ) delivered to a point in the Centre of the utile X-ray beam at a distance of 1 meter from the focal topographic point for 1 ma of negatron passing through the tubing. The end product expresses the ability of the tubing to change over electronic energy into X-ray exposure. X-ray tubing end product is the individual most of import parametric quantity to quantify radiation output ( Zoetelief et al, 2006 ) . The free-in-air exposure, FAE ( Mister ) was measured utilizing mill calibrated KV metre ( US made Victoreen X-ray trial device, theoretical account 4000 M+ ) obtained from the Department of Physics ( DOP ) University of Ibadan. The consistence of X-ray tubing end product with the tubing current ( ma ) or tube current exposure-time merchandise ( ma ) was measured for the scope of ma or ma values used in pattern. The sensor ( KV metre ) measures the mean, effectual and maximal extremum tubing electromotive force, power stage, exposure and exposure clip. This system determines the tubing electromotive force with truth of  ± 2 % ( Victoreen, 1995 ) . The internal ionisation chamber that measures exposure has volume of 36 cm3. The exposure clip is measured to an truth of  ± 2 % . The FAE ( Mister ) measured is converted into end product in mGy ( ma ) -1 by multiplying by a factor 0.00877/ ma ( Chang Jong and Hui- Yu, 1999 ) where ma in the denominator is the merchandise of the tubing current and exposure clip set at the clip of measuring of the end product.( 2.2 ) Environmental Monitoring and General ObservationsThe guiding rule used in all regulative paperss is that, radiation doses to the populace and to the people who work with radiation must be kept every bit low as moderately accomplishable ( ALARA rule ) . In kernel, radiation workers and the patient should be monitored at all times when working. The ground for this monitoring is to guarantee that the pattern being followed by the workers in their day-to-day modus operandi are safe and do non ensue in high doses being received. In the present survey, the dose rate at different points of involvement ( the console, entryway door behind the wall, patient waiting seats ) was measured with radiation sensor ( radiation proctor 4 minirad 1000+ ) . This device measures radiation dosage rate in ?Sv/ hour.( 2.3 ) Optical and Radiation Field Congruence/ Beam AlignmentThe beam control system is required for modulating the size of X-ray field country. Therefore, it plays an of import function in dose delivered to the patient because it controls the sum of patient surface country exposed to radiation and image contrast ( due to scattered radiation ) . The parametric quantities taken into consideration in beam control system includ e ; beam alliance, optical radiation field congruity, truth of the x Y graduated tables and illuminator bulb brightness. In this survey optical radiation field and beam alliance were examined.( 2.4 ) Ocular reviewsOne of the three parts of a quality control programme for a radiographic installation is ocular review. This portion includes look intoing the chief constituents of the equipment for proper operation, safety and good mechanical status. It is expected that they should include ; protective lead dress, lead shield of the cell wall, overhead tubing Crane, radiographic tabular array, control panel and other installations such as door and automatic visible radiation.( 3 ) RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONFive X-ray units in four infirmaries were investigated in the survey. Both the QC and environmental appraisal of the installations were carried out. Table 1 presents the radiographic equipment information at assorted infirmaries investigated. The old ages of industry of the equipment scope from 9 to 31 old ages, while the twelvemonth of installing is between 5 and 31 old ages. The consequence of age on the end product of an X-ray machine is good documented ( Mallam et al. , 2004, Ogundare et al. 2004 ) .( 3.1 ) X ray tubing OutputThe consequence of X-ray tubing end product at a distance of 1m each from the focal point of five X-ray units are presented in Table 2. The values of end product obtained in GHL ( M2 ) are comparatively low, those measured in GHL ( M1 ) are higher than those found in M2. It ranged from 0.0318 to 0.1192 mGy ( ma ) -1. However, higher end products are found at the same electromotive force in PSH and NOH. As an illustration, at 80kVp the end products are 0.0796, 0.1676, 0.2156 and 0.0762 mGy ( ma ) -1 for GHL ( M1 ) , PSH, NOH and NARH severally. The fluctuation in the end product could be attributed to the wave form, anode stuff, filtration, and tube age and anode surface harm. Knowledge of the end product value for a given X-ray tubing permit s the finding of both patient and movie exposures. It is besides used in the computation of Entrance Surface Dose ( ESD ) delivered to the patient at the point where the X-ray beam enters the patient. This dosimetry parametric quantity ( ESD ) gives the perspective appraisal of absorbed dosage to the patient. Although the entryway surface dosage is a hapless hazard index, it can be used to gauge the effectual dosage ( ED ) which better quantifies patient hazard ( Gkanatsios and Huda,1997 ) . The fluctuation in the end product among the infirmaries could take to fluctuation in doses delivered to the patients during the scrutinies. The consistence of X-ray tubing end product with ma was measured for a scope of ma for the five X-ray units at different electromotive forces. The consequences are presented in figures 1-3. Furthermore, consequences of end product measured at different kVp above 80 kVp ( GHL and NARH ) show strong correlativity with ma, nevertheless, the end products measured at lower electromotive force of 60 and 75 kVp indicate weak correlativity with ma. The X-ray tubing and the anode current are extremely stabilized at this point ( Suliman and Elshiekh, 2008 ) . The consequences of the tubing electromotive force truth for five X-ray units investigated are presented in tabular arraies 3a-3d. The tabular arraies show the tubing electromotive force set, the tubing electromotive force measured and the magnitude of divergence. It should be noted that the magnitude of divergence in kVp vary from infirmary to infirmary. In GHL, the divergence ranged between 0.9 and10.9 % for the two machines ( M1 and M2 ) . The scopes of magnitude of divergence for the three other infirmaries are ; 0.2 to 0.5 % , 45.5 to 72.7 % ( highest in this survey ) and 22.9 to 23.3 % in PSH, NOH and NARH severally. Both m1 ( GHL ) and PSH comply with the demand of  ± 5 % , while M2 ( GHL ) , NOH and NARH exceeded the demand. The grounds for higher divergence in kVp found in NOH and NARH are multifactorial. The European Commission recommended a high technique of 125 kilovolts IAEA ( 1995 ) which likely consequences in low doses, but the radiotherapists prefer the higher contrast thorax radiogram which consequences from low kVp. Earlier study indicated that increasing the tubing potency ( kVp ) from 8-13 kilovolt in lumbar and pectoral spinal column scrutiny resulted in a dose decrease of 26-36 % ( Martin et al, 1993 ) . The higher divergences outside the tolerance bound as obtained in the present survey show disagreements in kVp between the measured and the set values particularly if the tubings are non adequately maintained. Furthermore, the overly high divergence between the set and the measured kVp could cut down the image contrast ( Livingstone et al, 2004 ) . The unexpected elevated value of proficient parametric quantities which consequences from defective machine could impact both patient dosage and image quality. The tendencies found in GHL ( M2 ) , NOH and NARH require regular and repeated QC trials.( 3.2 ) Quality Control ( QC ) TrialTable 4 is the sum-up of the QC trials carried out on the equipment at different infirmaries. The kVp truth trials show conformity with acceptable bound in GHL ( M1 and M2 ) and PSH while NOH and NARH show non-compliance with acceptable bound of 5 % . As respects the kVp consistence, similar tendency is found in the infirmaries as those found in kVp truth. In footings of timer truth, it is postulated that exposure clip straight affect the entire measure of radiation emitted from an X-ray tubing. Therefore, an accurate exposure timer is critical for decently exposed radiogram and sensible patient radiation exposure. Both GHL and PSH met the the acceptable variableness bound. Since the timer truth in NOH and NARH are above the bound of acceptableness, it is expected that the radiation dosage delivered to the patient will be higher than the expected value required to bring forth the movie. Furthermore, the one-dimensionality of tubing current ( ma ) and beam alliance of both NOH and NARH fell abruptly of the acceptable bound of 10 % and 3 % severally. Regulation of X-ray tubing filament temperature ( along with the exposure clip find the quality of X raies in the X-ray beam ) is done with millampere picker in an X-ray generator. The beam limitation system is required for modulating the size of the X-ray field country. The mechanism contro ls the sum of patient anatomy exposed to radiation beam ( Papp, 2002 ) . This plays a cardinal function in patient dose and image contrast. The addition in country increases the production of the scattered radiation, hence higher patient dosage and wellness hazard. The non-compliance of optical radiation field and radiation field congruity may stem from the displacement in mechanism that moves the shutter, doing improper public presentation. This leads to higher patient dosage and repetition images ( consequence in more movies being used and more disbursals ) .( 3.3 ) Forces DistributionThe saloon chart in figure 4 shows the distribution of forces. It indicates that two classs of forces are losing ; Radiation Protection Officer/ Medical Physicist and Record Officer. The tendency is similar to the earlier work reported elsewhere ( Oluwafisoye et al. , 2009 ) . The tendency shows that radiation protection of the patients, visitants and forces is non the preoccupation of the direction of the infirmaries investigated. The absence of the record officers indicate that record maintaining at the infirmaries is far from being equal. A record maintaining system is necessary to document the quality control processs, the figure of culls and other activitie s traveling on at the X-ray units of the infirmary.( 3.4 ) Visual/ General ObservationsThe consequence of ocular observations is presented in table 5. It shows that all the basic constituents inspected were functional except LED index on the control panel found in GHL ( M2 ) . Table 6 shows the general observations carried out at assorted infirmaries investigated. Columns 1 and 2 show that the chief door taking to the X-ray room is non lead-lined. Columns 3 and 4 indicate that merely NOH has efficient 2nd door and lead-lined. The cells of the four infirmaries are efficient. This indicates that the interior decorator of the console put in topographic point equal steps that prevent the technicians from immaterial beams during exposures. The doors to the units lack automatic control, connoting that during the exposure the doors do non shut automatically as a consequence, controlled entree to the country where radiation exposure may be taking topographic point is non ensured. Lead apron was non provided in NARH. Nevertheless, the lead apron provided in GHL was non efficient. Regulation for good pattern stipulates that lead aprons and baseball mitts should be available in the radiographic room and have a lower limit of 0.5 millimeters of lead tantamount thickness ( Papp,2002 ) . It is besides apparent that technique charts were losing in all the units, an indicant that technique parametric quantities are chosen at random by the radiographers responsible for the exposure of the patient. This could take to hapless matching of patient size and technique parametric quantities. Furthermore, warning visible radiation was non provided in any of the units to warn visitants or other forces of the exposure traveling on in the X-ray room. The forces monitoring badge was merely available in NOH, bespeaking that forces dose supervising in GHL, PSH and NARH are non-existent.( 3.5 ) Dose degreeConsequence of environmental dose monitoring at the chosen locations within and in the immediate environment of each of the X-ray units investigated is presented in table 7. The consequences in all the five units indicate that the dose rate measured at the sofa are by and large really high. At the border of the cell the dosage rates recorded are greater than the background dosage rate by a factor of 7, 20, and 10 in GHL ( M1 ) , PSH and NARH, severally. The dose rate measured within the cell is comparable to the background. This status is safe for the radiographer ; nevertheless, the dose rate is high within the entryway door in GHL ( M1 ) and NARH, it is greater than the backg round dosage rate by a factor of 6 and 7.5 each. In add-on, the dose rate measured at the waiting anteroom of the patients is comparable with the background dosage rate in PSH and NARH, but higher than the background dosage rate by a factor of 10 in NOH. The high dosage rate experienced in NOH could be attributed to damaged door of the X-ray units. Another possible account for the high dosage rate at the waiting anteroom is the direct nexus between the anteroom and the X-ray machine. It is interesting to observe that there were no escapes experienced in the five X-ray units investigated as reported in the earlier survey carried out in Nigeria ( Oluwafisoye et al. , 2009 ) . Apparently, this present survey is the first QC trial and environmental monitoring attempts carried out in the five X-ray units in four infirmaries investigated. This is an indicant that the consequences are preliminary against which future measurings could be compared. Besides, the usage of thermoluminescent dosemeters ( TLD ) for the forces monitoring has ne'er been undertaken in the five units. Personnel monitoring is indispensable, since there is a nexus between the ionizing radiation and coevals of reactive O series [ ROS ] ( Cohen, 2002 ) . These ROS have been implicated in the etiology of over 100 diseases. Radiation is one of the major exogenic beginnings of free groups in adult male and it has been proved that ionising radiation produces ROS in biological system capable of destructing biomolecules such as DNA, lipoids, proteins and saccharide ( Olisekodiaka et al. , 2009 ) . Workers runing X-ray equipment are exposed to long term low doses of ionising radiation which may imp act their antioxidant position. Consequences of the QC trials and monitoring were sent to the direction of the four infirmaries investigated. In Addition, recommendations on the necessity of regular QC trial were forwarded to each infirmary for necessary actions.( 4 ) DecisionQuality control trials of five X-ray units are undertaken with intent of safety and dose optimisation in the X-rays Centres investigated. The ages of three out of five machines are good over 10 old ages. In add-on, the divergence of the measured kVp from set value on the control panel varied among the infirmaries. Two out of the five machines complied with the needed criterion of pattern, while three exceeded the demand. The QC trial carried out on kVp truth and consistence show non- conformity in two infirmaries. The distribution of forces show that, the preoccupation of the authorization of the X-ray unit investigated was the quality of the radiogram produced at the disbursal of safety of the patient. The fluctuation in the end product of th e assorted tubing is an indicant that doses among the infirmaries differ. In each of the X-ray units investigated there was no specialised installation to execute pediatric scrutinies and movie screening.

Essay On Oedipus The King - 1320 Words

Greta Oulman Windish English II 3 December 2017 Oedipus: An Apparent â€Å"Hero† Did you ever think that a man who killed his father and married his mother would ever be considered a hero? NOBODY DID. (Except the Greeks†¦) The story of our tragic â€Å"hero,† Oedipus, depicts him in the midst of his life, just learning about his adoption and, years later, the birth of his four kids (with his mother) that - apparently - inspired so many people. Oedipus’ Story Oedipus’ story is about how he became an apparent â€Å"hero†. In the beginning, Oedipus’ father, King Laius, and mother, Queen Jocasta of Thebes wanted to know if they would someday have kids. Laius went to the Oracle of Delphi and asked the burning question. The Oracle replied that their first†¦show more content†¦She asked him the same riddle as she did everybody else: â€Å"What walks on four feet in the morning, two in the afternoon, and three at night?† Oedipus thought long and hard until he finally answered with â€Å"Man, who crawls on all fours as a baby, he walks on two legs as an adult, and needs a walking stick when old.† The Sphinx - never bested at her own game - was so angry at Oedipus, she fell off the rock she was sitting on and killed herself. He was then greeted by Creon, the uncle he didn’t know he had. Creon said that whoever killed the Sphinx would become king. Oedipus met Jocasta and they were married, unknowingly completely fulfilling the prophecy. The new king had fathered four kids with his mother: Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone and Ismene. Years later, a plagued smothered the land. Oedipus sent Creon to the Oracle to find out why. The Oracle told Creon it was because Laius’ killer (his first son) hadn’t been caught. Oedipus ordered a search for everyone to help find the killer. A messenger came in (at that exact moment) to tell the king that he, in fact killed the previous king. Creon and Oedipus argued, and Jocasta added that her first son was dead. Then, another messenger came in and said that King Polybus was dead. Oedipus was relieved and said he would not attend the funeral anyway, just to prevent the second part of the prophecy from possibly coming true. The messenger then said Oedipus wasShow MoreRelatedOedipus The King Theme Essay1076 Words   |  5 Pages Oedipus the King: Themes of Blindness and Sight in the Sophocles Oedipus the King What does it mean to truly see? Do those blessed with normal vision really see? Oedipus the King by Sophocles’ is intertwined with many powerful themes and messages, establishing what real vision and real sight are. Sophocles’ play also demonstrates that sometimes in life we have to experience great loss in order to rediscover our true selves. 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